17 Rare Earth Elements and Where They Are Found
Rare earth elements sit inside some of the world's most important industrial supply chains. This guide covers all 17 rare earths, the minerals that host them and the geological regions where commercially significant deposits occur.
What Are The 17 Rare Earth Elements?
The rare earth elements are a group of 17 metallic elements: scandium, yttrium and the 15 elements in the lanthanide series from lanthanum through lutetium.
Despite the name, many rare earth elements are relatively widespread in the Earth's crust. Their commercial importance comes from a different problem: economically attractive concentrations are much less common, and individual rare earths occur together in complex mineral systems that require extensive beneficiation, separation and refining.
This means a rare earth mine rarely produces a single element. A deposit normally contains a basket of rare earth elements whose relative concentrations depend on the geology and mineralogy of the ore body.
For developers and investors, the distinction matters. Resource tonnage alone says little about the economics of a rare earth project. Mineralogy, recoveries, concentrate specifications, separation costs, radioactive constituents and the value of the individual rare earth distribution can determine commercial viability.
Rare earth geology is a basket business. The economic question is usually which rare earths are present, in what proportions, inside which minerals and how efficiently those minerals can be processed into saleable products.
The Complete List Of 17 Rare Earth Elements
| Element | Symbol | Atomic No. | Typical Geological Association | Representative Locations | Important Uses |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Scandium | Sc | 21 | Dispersed through many minerals and commonly considered as a potential byproduct of laterite, titanium, uranium and other mining operations. | Australia, China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Philippines and other lateritic mineral districts. | Aluminum-scandium alloys, aerospace applications, solid oxide fuel cells and specialized lighting. |
| Yttrium | Y | 39 | Particularly associated with xenotime, monazite, ion-adsorption clays and some alkaline or carbonatite-related systems. | China, Australia, India, Brazil, Canada, Africa and other heavy-mineral districts. | Ceramics, lasers, phosphors, alloys and high-performance materials. |
| Lanthanum | La | 57 | Bastnäsite and monazite rich deposits. | China, United States, Australia, India, Brazil and other LREE districts. | Catalysts, optical glass, batteries and specialty alloys. |
| Cerium | Ce | 58 | Common in bastnäsite and monazite and often one of the more abundant rare earths within LREE deposits. | China, United States, Australia, India and Brazil. | Catalysts, glass polishing, ceramics and metallurgy. |
| Praseodymium | Pr | 59 | Occurs with other light rare earths in bastnäsite, monazite and related ores. | China, United States, Australia and other major LREE-bearing deposits. | Permanent magnets, aerospace alloys, ceramics and specialized glass. |
| Neodymium | Nd | 60 | Bastnäsite and monazite deposits are important sources. Nd commonly occurs together with praseodymium. | China, United States, Australia, Africa, Brazil, Canada and other rare earth districts. | NdFeB permanent magnets used in motors, wind turbines, electronics and industrial equipment. |
| Promethium | Pm | 61 | Has no stable isotope. Only minute natural quantities occur through radioactive processes. Commercial quantities are produced through nuclear processes. | Trace natural occurrence rather than conventional economic mineral deposits. | Specialized nuclear batteries, research and radioactive-source applications. |
| Samarium | Sm | 62 | Occurs in bastnäsite, monazite, xenotime and other mixed rare earth minerals. | China, Australia, United States, India, Brazil and other REE deposits. | Samarium-cobalt permanent magnets, nuclear applications and specialized electronics. |
| Europium | Eu | 63 | Distributed in rare earth minerals including monazite and bastnäsite, generally at much lower concentrations than cerium or lanthanum. | China, Australia, United States and other mixed rare earth deposits. | Phosphors, lighting, displays, security markings and specialized materials. |
| Gadolinium | Gd | 64 | Found in monazite, bastnäsite, xenotime and other rare earth mineral assemblages. | China, Australia, North America, India and other REE provinces. | Medical imaging, neutron absorption, magnets and specialty alloys. |
| Terbium | Tb | 65 | More enriched in heavy rare earth sources such as xenotime and ion-adsorption clay deposits. | Southern China, Myanmar and other HREE-bearing geological systems. | Permanent magnets, phosphors, lasers and solid-state devices. |
| Dysprosium | Dy | 66 | Important component of xenotime and heavy rare earth enriched ion-adsorption systems. | Southern China, Myanmar and selected heavy rare earth deposits elsewhere. | High-temperature permanent magnets, motors, generators and defense applications. |
| Holmium | Ho | 67 | Commonly associated with xenotime and other heavy rare earth mineral assemblages. | China, Southeast Asia, Australia, Canada and selected HREE deposits. | Lasers, magnets, nuclear applications and specialized optical equipment. |
| Erbium | Er | 68 | Found in xenotime, ion-adsorption clays and other HREE-bearing minerals. | China, Southeast Asia and other heavy rare earth districts. | Fiber-optic amplifiers, lasers, metallurgy and specialty glass. |
| Thulium | Tm | 69 | One of the least abundant rare earths and typically recovered from mixed HREE mineral concentrates. | Heavy rare earth deposits in China, Southeast Asia and other specialized deposits. | Lasers, portable X-ray systems, nuclear applications and research. |
| Ytterbium | Yb | 70 | Associated with xenotime, ion-adsorption clays and other HREE-bearing minerals. | China, Southeast Asia, Australia, Canada and other HREE districts. | Fiber lasers, metallurgy, catalysts and scientific instruments. |
| Lutetium | Lu | 71 | Occurs in very low concentrations and tends to concentrate with the heavier rare earth elements. | Xenotime and HREE-bearing deposits in China, Southeast Asia and other rare earth provinces. | Medical imaging detectors, catalysts and specialized research applications. |
Classification note. Light and heavy rare earth classifications vary between geological, scientific and commercial sources. The most important practical distinction for a mining project is the actual distribution of saleable elements within its concentrate.
Which Minerals Actually Contain Rare Earths?
Hundreds of minerals contain rare earth elements, but only a smaller group has supplied most commercial production. The host mineral determines how the ore must be crushed, concentrated, chemically treated and separated.
Bastnäsite
Bastnäsite is one of the world's principal rare earth ore minerals. It is particularly associated with light rare earth elements such as cerium, lanthanum, neodymium and praseodymium.
Famous bastnäsite-bearing systems include Mountain Pass in California and major Chinese rare earth deposits.
Monazite
Monazite is a rare earth phosphate mineral commonly enriched in light rare earths. It occurs in hard-rock deposits and in heavy-mineral sands created through weathering, erosion and sedimentary concentration.
Monazite-bearing mineral sands occur in countries including India, Brazil, Australia and South Africa.
Xenotime
Xenotime is an yttrium phosphate mineral and an important geological host for yttrium and heavier rare earth elements.
Its mineral chemistry makes xenotime particularly relevant when evaluating projects targeting dysprosium, terbium, ytterbium and other HREEs.
Ion-Adsorption Clays
In ion-adsorption deposits, rare earth ions become weakly attached to clay minerals created through intense weathering of rare-earth-bearing source rocks.
Southern China became especially important because some of these deposits contain commercially valuable proportions of heavy rare earth elements.
Loparite
Loparite is a complex oxide mineral containing rare earths, titanium and niobium. It is particularly associated with alkaline geological systems.
Russia's Lovozero complex is the best-known commercial geological example.
Eudialyte And Other Complex Minerals
Peralkaline igneous complexes can host rare earths in minerals such as eudialyte and other chemically complex phases.
These deposits can contain attractive HREE distributions, although metallurgy and separation can be more demanding.
The Main Geological Types Of Rare Earth Deposits
Carbonatites
Carbonatites are unusual carbonate-rich igneous rocks and host several of the world's largest rare earth resources. They are commonly enriched in light rare earths.
Alkaline Intrusions
Alkaline and peralkaline igneous complexes can contain broad rare earth distributions including significant proportions of heavy rare earths in selected deposits.
Weathered Clay Deposits
Deep chemical weathering can mobilize rare earths from underlying rocks and concentrate them on clay surfaces. These systems can be particularly relevant for HREEs.
Heavy Mineral Sands
Weathering and sedimentary processes can concentrate durable minerals including monazite and xenotime in coastal and alluvial placer deposits.
Iron-Oxide Related Systems
Certain giant mineral systems contain rare earths alongside iron, niobium and other commodities. Bayan Obo in China is the most prominent example.
Secondary And Byproduct Sources
Rare earths can also occur in phosphates, mine tailings, coal-related materials and deposits developed primarily for other metals, creating potential byproduct opportunities.
Where In The World Are Rare Earths Found?
Rare earth mineralization exists across many continents. Commercial supply is more concentrated because a geological occurrence still requires suitable grade, mineralogy, recoveries, infrastructure, processing capacity and economics.
| Country / Region | Important Geological Examples | Typical Rare Earth Profile | Why It Matters |
|---|---|---|---|
| China | Bayan Obo, Sichuan carbonatite systems and southern ion-adsorption clay districts. | Major LREE resources plus globally important HREE-bearing clay deposits. | China has developed an unusually broad supply chain spanning mining, separation, refining, metals, alloys and downstream manufacturing. |
| United States | Mountain Pass, California and numerous exploration-stage occurrences elsewhere. | Mountain Pass is principally a light rare earth bastnäsite-bearing carbonatite deposit. | One of the largest established rare earth mining districts outside China. |
| Australia | Mount Weld in Western Australia plus a substantial pipeline of rare earth exploration projects. | Strong LREE resources with selected projects targeting heavy rare earth and scandium opportunities. | Australia combines significant geology with an established institutional mining industry. |
| Myanmar | Weathered clay systems in the country's rare-earth-bearing geological belts. | Important heavy rare earth feed including dysprosium and terbium. | A strategically significant upstream source for HREE supply chains. |
| India | Monazite-bearing coastal heavy-mineral sands, particularly along parts of the southern and eastern coastline. | Predominantly monazite-hosted rare earth resources. | India's extensive mineral sands create a substantial long-term rare earth resource base. |
| Brazil | Carbonatites, alkaline complexes and monazite-bearing mineral sands. | Large diversified rare earth resource potential. | Brazil hosts several major alkaline and carbonatite mineral provinces. |
| Russia | Lovozero and other alkaline and peralkaline complexes. | Loparite-hosted and polymetallic rare earth resources. | Russia contains extensive alkaline geological terrain with significant rare earth mineralization. |
| Vietnam | Northern Vietnamese rare earth districts including the Dong Pao area. | Large identified rare earth mineral systems. | Vietnam has attracted strategic interest as potential new supply outside established producing regions. |
| Canada | Nechalacho, Strange Lake and numerous alkaline and peralkaline exploration projects. | Both LREE and HREE-enriched systems occur. | Canada hosts a large exploration pipeline supported by mature mining capital markets. |
| Greenland | Ilímaussaq-related deposits and the Kringlerne/Tanbreez area. | Large polymetallic and HREE-bearing peralkaline systems. | Greenland contains some of the world's more significant undeveloped rare earth geological systems. |
| South Africa | Steenkampskraal and other rare earth occurrences. | High-grade monazite-associated mineralization in selected deposits. | South Africa combines established mining infrastructure with distinctive REE geology. |
| Tanzania | Ngualla and other East African carbonatite systems. | Predominantly light rare earth mineralization with neodymium and praseodymium exposure. | East Africa has emerged as an important frontier for undeveloped rare earth projects. |
| Malawi | Songwe Hill and other alkaline geological systems associated with the East African Rift. | LREE-dominant mineralization with commercially relevant magnet rare earths. | Malawi forms part of a broader East African rare earth exploration corridor. |
| Angola | Longonjo and other alkaline and carbonatite-related occurrences. | Magnet-related light rare earth elements including neodymium and praseodymium. | Angola has attracted increasing interest in critical-mineral development beyond its traditional commodity sectors. |
Light Rare Earths Versus Heavy Rare Earths
Rare earth projects are frequently described as either light rare earth element projects or heavy rare earth element projects. The distinction affects both mineral processing strategy and potential revenue.
Light Rare Earth Elements
Commercial LREE discussions generally center on elements including lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium and samarium.
Bastnäsite and monazite deposits commonly carry substantial LREE concentrations. Neodymium and praseodymium are particularly important because of their use in permanent magnet supply chains.
Heavy Rare Earth Elements
Heavy rare earth discussions commonly include yttrium and elements toward the heavier end of the lanthanide series, including terbium, dysprosium, erbium, ytterbium and lutetium.
Xenotime and ion-adsorption clays can carry more attractive proportions of these elements than conventional LREE-dominant deposits.
Grade and tonnage only tell part of the story. A lower-grade deposit with an attractive NdPr, Dy or Tb distribution can have a very different revenue profile from a larger deposit dominated by lower-value cerium and lanthanum.
The Rare Earths Behind Permanent Magnets
Permanent magnets account for some of the most strategically important demand within the rare earth market.
Neodymium and praseodymium are central components of high-performance NdFeB magnets. Dysprosium and terbium can be introduced to improve performance under demanding temperature conditions, although magnet manufacturers continually work to optimize the amount required.
These materials are used across electric motors, industrial automation, robotics, wind generation, consumer electronics, aerospace systems and defense technologies.
Samarium provides another magnet route through samarium-cobalt alloys, which retain important performance characteristics under high-temperature and demanding operating conditions.
Why A Rare Earth Deposit Can Be Difficult To Finance
Discovering rare earth mineralization is the beginning of the development process. A financeable project needs to demonstrate a commercially credible path from ore body to saleable product.
Lenders and strategic investors need evidence on resource confidence, mineralogy, metallurgy, recoveries, process design, capex, operating cost, infrastructure, permitting, tailings, water, environmental liabilities and product marketing.
Rare earth separation creates another layer of complexity. The elements have similar chemical properties, so producing individual high-purity oxides can require sophisticated separation circuits and significant technical expertise.
A project selling mixed concentrate also has a different financing profile from one capable of producing separated oxides or magnet-grade feedstock.
FG Capital Advisors covers these issues in our project finance for mining projects framework, where geology is evaluated alongside the commercial structure that ultimately supports repayment.
Africa's Rare Earth Opportunity
Africa contains numerous carbonatite, alkaline and heavy-mineral geological systems capable of hosting rare earth mineralization. Projects have been advanced across Tanzania, Malawi, Angola, South Africa, Namibia, Burundi and other jurisdictions.
The opportunity is broader than proving that rare earths exist. Projects need credible technical studies, title, permitting, infrastructure, logistics, metallurgical flowsheets and commercially defensible product assumptions.
Development capital can then be structured through combinations of strategic equity, project-level equity, offtake-linked investment, prepayments, royalties, streams, development finance and senior project debt as the asset progresses through successive technical milestones.
Our article on financing graphite, rare earths and coltan from Africa covers the financing requirements facing sponsors seeking to convert mineral potential into an investable project.
What Investors Need To Know About A Rare Earth Project
| Question | Why It Matters |
|---|---|
| Which rare earths are present? | The distribution of Nd, Pr, Dy, Tb and other elements influences the potential revenue basket. |
| Which minerals host them? | Mineralogy determines the beneficiation and chemical processing route. |
| What are the recoveries? | In-situ grade has limited commercial value if valuable minerals cannot be recovered economically. |
| What product will be sold? | Mixed concentrate, mixed carbonate, separated oxide and metal products have different buyers, pricing structures and capital requirements. |
| Are uranium or thorium present? | Radioactive constituents can materially affect processing, permitting, transport and waste management. |
| Who will buy the output? | Product qualification, specifications and credible offtake pathways strengthen the commercial case. |
| Where will separation occur? | Mining, beneficiation and separation may occur in different jurisdictions and require separate facilities. |
| How much capital is required? | Rare earth processing circuits can create substantial capex requirements beyond the mine itself. |
Why Scandium Is Different
Scandium belongs to the 17-element rare earth group because of its chemical characteristics and geological association, but its resource story differs substantially from conventional lanthanide projects.
Scandium is widely dispersed through the Earth's crust and often occurs at concentrations that make dedicated extraction challenging. Potential supply can therefore come from deposits developed for other metals or from lateritic systems where scandium becomes enriched during weathering.
This makes scandium economics particularly sensitive to metallurgy, byproduct credits, processing integration and the scale of the end market.
Promethium Is The Exception
Promethium occupies atomic number 61 between neodymium and samarium. Unlike the other rare earth elements, promethium has no stable isotope.
Only extremely small quantities occur naturally through radioactive processes. It therefore has no conventional promethium mining industry comparable with neodymium, lanthanum or dysprosium.
Usable promethium isotopes are instead associated primarily with nuclear production and specialized scientific applications.
Mining Is Only One Part Of The Rare Earth Supply Chain
A mine produces ore. Industrial consumers ultimately require carefully specified chemical products, metals, alloys, magnet materials or finished components.
Between those two points sits a long value chain that can include mining, crushing, beneficiation, leaching, purification, solvent extraction, precipitation, oxide production, metal conversion, alloy production and magnet manufacturing.
This explains why geological resource ownership alone provides an incomplete picture of strategic supply. Processing capability and downstream manufacturing capacity can be just as important as the mine itself.
The strategic asset is the complete chain. An ore body creates mineral potential. Metallurgy, separation, qualified customers, infrastructure and capital convert that potential into a functioning rare earth business.
Financing Rare Earth And Critical Mineral Projects
Rare earth developers can require different forms of capital at different stages of the project.
Exploration Capital
Equity and specialist mining capital can finance drilling, geological work, resource definition and initial metallurgy.
Study Funding
Sponsors may raise strategic or institutional capital to advance metallurgical test work, PFS, DFS, engineering and permitting.
Strategic Investment
Processors, industrial groups and end users can invest alongside long-term product supply arrangements.
Offtake Prepayments
Qualified projects can use future contracted output to support structured prepayment capital.
Royalty And Streaming Capital
Alternative structures can fund project development in exchange for defined future production economics.
Project Finance
More advanced assets can pursue senior debt, DFI capital, ECA-supported structures and private credit once technical and commercial risks are sufficiently defined.
Technical Reference Sources
U.S. Geological Survey: Rare Earths Statistics and Information
USGS rare earth statistics and commodity information
U.S. Geological Survey: Rare-Earth Elements
USGS Professional Paper on rare earth geology and resources
U.S. Geological Survey: Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026
Current USGS mineral commodity statistics
U.S. Geological Survey: Rare Earth Element Deposit Models
Carbonatite and peralkaline intrusion-related REE deposits
Oak Ridge National Laboratory: Promethium
ORNL research on promethium chemistry and natural abundance
Frequently Asked Questions
What are the 17 rare earth elements?
The 17 rare earth elements are scandium, yttrium, lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium and lutetium.
Why are there 17 rare earth elements?
The group includes the 15 lanthanide elements from lanthanum through lutetium plus scandium and yttrium, which have closely related chemical characteristics and commonly occur in related geological environments.
Where are most rare earth elements found?
Rare earth mineralization occurs around the world. Important geological regions are found in China, the United States, Australia, India, Brazil, Russia, Southeast Asia, Canada, Greenland and several African countries. Economic supply is more concentrated than geological occurrence.
What minerals contain rare earth elements?
Important commercial rare earth minerals and deposit types include bastnäsite, monazite, xenotime, loparite and ion-adsorption clays. Numerous other minerals can also contain rare earth elements.
Which rare earth elements are used in magnets?
Neodymium and praseodymium are central to NdFeB permanent magnets. Dysprosium and terbium can support performance in demanding applications. Samarium is used in samarium-cobalt permanent magnets.
What are heavy rare earth elements?
Heavy rare earth terminology generally refers to the heavier end of the lanthanide series and commonly includes yttrium. Commercial classification conventions vary. Terbium, dysprosium, erbium, ytterbium and lutetium are among the elements commonly discussed as HREEs.
Why is promethium different from the other rare earths?
Promethium has no stable isotope and occurs naturally only in extremely small quantities. Commercial promethium therefore comes primarily from nuclear production rather than conventional mining.
Are rare earth elements actually rare?
Many rare earth elements are relatively widespread in the Earth's crust. The challenge is finding concentrations, mineralogy and metallurgy capable of supporting economic extraction and separation.
How are rare earth mining projects financed?
Financing can include exploration equity, strategic investment, offtake-linked capital, prepayments, royalties, streams, development finance, private credit and project debt. The appropriate structure depends on project stage, metallurgy, permitting, capex and the commercial pathway for the final product.
Financing A Rare Earth Or Critical Minerals Project?
FG Capital Advisors works with mining sponsors and asset owners on project finance, structured debt, strategic capital, offtake-linked financing and institutional transaction preparation for mining and critical mineral projects.
Disclosure. This article is provided for general informational purposes only. Geological occurrences, resources, reserves, project status, production levels and commercial conditions can change over time. References to deposits, countries or projects do not constitute an investment recommendation, geological opinion, reserve estimate or representation regarding economic viability. Mining and mineral projects require independent geological, metallurgical, environmental, legal, financial and technical diligence. FG Capital Advisors provides advisory services on a best-efforts basis. Capital availability and transaction approval remain subject to investor, lender and counterparty review.
